Regarded as one of Chine's oldest philosophical traditions, Confucianism is part of the "Three Teachings" alongside Taoism and Buddhism. Rooted primarily in the legacy of the sage Confucius, this school of thought continues to exert considerable influence over Chinese society and parts of East Asia.

Confucius, the founder

Born around 551 BC in Qufu (Shandong Province, Chine), Confucius was the first great Chinese philosopher alongside Lao Zi. While the latter, according to accepted historical accounts, left behind Taoism, Kong Zi (or Kong Fu Zi) in his Chinese name, is credited with originating Confucianism.

Dying in 479 BC, Confucius did write several treatises that were canonized, but it is thanks to his principal disciples, including Mencius, that traces of his work have survived. In this regard, The Analects, written by several disciples of Master Kong Zi, remain the best source for understanding his teachings.

A reinterpretation of ancient Chinese wisdom

The most widely followed philosophical system in Chine, with approximately 150 million adherents, Confucianism is a blend of ancient beliefs drawn from the classical texts of Chinese civilization (the Yi Jing or Book of Changes, the Shu Jing or Book of Documents, the Shi Jing or Book of Odes, the Li Jing or Book of Rites, and the Chun-Qiu or Spring and Autumn Annals) and the wisdom of Kong Zi.

Through his teachings, Kong Zi never claimed to introduce anything new—only to reexplain notions that had existed since ancient times. Kong Zi dreamed of a return to the golden age of earthly paradise, which he imagined occurred during the Zhou Dynasty. In that era, wise kings fulfilled a celestial moral order and thereby maintained social harmony. To return to this state of affairs, Confucius advocated several rules of social conduct designed to foster collective improvement.

Refusing to speculate on the divine, the philosopher in no way excluded religious traditions from his teachings. Thus, Confucianism was rooted from its origins in ancestor veneration, respect for traditions, and sacred rituals. Yet more than a religion in the Western sense, Confucianism proves to be a pragmatic mode of thought above all focused on moral, civic, and political dimensions. The doctrine emphasizes the duties of the powerful and the rights of the weak.

A code of moral conduct, a social and political ethic

For Confucius, man possesses an inherently positive nature; evil develops from ignorance. Hence the importance for individuals to educate themselves and follow a moral ethic, as the Master himself did after his parents' death, despite limited economic resources.

The pursuit of wisdom and individual virtue enables progress toward group harmony, and thus toward a harmonious society and state. To achieve this, Kong Zi defined several successive stages: the development of knowledge, sincerity in thought, the reformation of the heart, the cultivation of personality, the regulation of families, and the just governance of states.

Confucianism, therefore, is above all a guide for proper social conduct among the people and for political conduct among rulers. These principles, rather than constraints, should serve as aids and not prevent each person's unique character from expressing itself.

Through his teachings, Kong Zi left behind several sayings that remain celebrated today:

"Do not do unto others what you would not wish done unto yourself." "The honest man is upright, but not rigid." "He who does not understand life, how can he understand death?"

Confucianism considers good human relationships as essential to the proper functioning of society, and moral virtue as the foundation of good governance. Sincerity holds an important place, enabling man to free his own nature. By developing sincerity within himself, a person cultivates sincerity around him.

Nobility is not a social status but a state of mind: the pursuit of an ideal of goodness, beauty, and truth. Thus Confucius advocates the love of truth, kindness, generosity, good family relations, and elevates courtesy to an important obligation.

The interdependence of all things

According to Kong Zi's teaching, man must consider the interdependence of all things and serve primarily the interest of the collective or the state. He forms part of a fixed social and familial hierarchy (parent-child relations, sovereign-subject relations, etc.). He is a relational being with a specific place within society.

Confucian texts, particularly the Analects, speak thus of humane governance, the apex of this hierarchy. The ruler must be superior to ordinary mortals in that he sets an example: invested with a mission, he must be educated, sincere, exemplary, and privilege action over words.

He must be virtuous, for virtue is the foundation of all good governance: "If a man can govern himself, what difficulty will he have governing the state? But he who cannot govern himself, how can he govern others?" and "He suffers from lack of talent, not from being unknown by others," Kong Zi explains regarding the good ruler.

He is the intermediary between mankind and the divine (Heaven or the Cosmos). Indeed, social harmony is closely linked to the harmony of the universe, hence the presence of religious rituals in which the sovereign plays the role of chief priest.

According to Confucius, society mirrors nature; social order is modeled on cosmic order. The Emperor being Heaven's representative on earth, in case of natural disaster, he is held responsible. For each person, a misfortune is perceived as the fruit of an earlier error (hence the apparent lack of compassion for those in distress).

Confucianism and the Chinese

Confucianism, more closely aligned with social and political realities than Taoism and Buddhism—which might be qualified as more spiritual—is probably more accessible in terms of comprehension to ordinary people.

This is likely why today Chinese society remains strongly marked by the teachings of Confucius. The perfect Confucian is in a sense a gentleman: educated, respectful of others and traditions, and possessed of a sense of duty.

What place for the Divine?

Unlike the monotheistic religions originating in the Mediterranean basin, Confucianism does not seek to explain the divine; Confucius consistently avoided speculation on transcendental matters. The sage simply believed that Heaven made the final determination of the fate of living beings and that one of man's aims should be to understand how Heaven operates. This doctrine accepts the world as it is, without seeking to change it, only to adapt to it.

Thus, there is no disruptive evil in Confucianism comparable to the Devil among Christians, nor any objective beyond earthly life such as the Christian paradise. The Confucian practitioner acts for his present life and his reputation after death.

Similarly regarding sin, contemplative practices, or self-mortification: the Confucian believer seeks above all to act in the best possible manner, and errors form part of the educational process. Magic is limited to traditional practices of paying homage to divinities.

Evolution in Chine

Confucius's philosophy was the official doctrine of the Han Dynasty emperors (206 BC–220 AD), and his precepts were closely linked to the expression of power.

Subsequently, though remaining peripheral despite a cult devoted to Kong Zi, Confucianism returned with force under the Song Dynasty (960–1278 AD). During this same period emerged a new variant, the Neo-Confucianism of Zhu Xi, which held that every person's aim is to open themselves to supreme good.

More than a legacy of Confucius (Kong Fu Zi), Confucianism is an intellectual genealogy that began with the great philosopher and has successfully merged with Taoism and Buddhism. Thus it is not entirely accurate to oppose the three teachings, which in reality focus on different aspects.

Confucianism is often considered the religion (or rather philosophy) that enabled Chine's unity (collective interest superior = the ideology of a unified Chine). Closely associated with state power, it was mandatory study material for all Chinese officials until 1905.

Following the advent of the Chinese Republic (1911), Confucianism was abandoned by many young intellectuals but remained close to the state. It was clearly Mao Zedong who fought most vigorously against the doctrine, and by extension all non-Marxist philosophies, during the Cultural Revolution.

Confucianism has expanded beyond Chine's borders: the doctrine resonates strongly in Vietnam, South Korea, Japan, and even Indonesia (the 6th official religion since 2006), as well as in the West, where increasing numbers of people are becoming interested in Oriental philosophies and modes of thought.

Today, while the Chinese state is officially non-religious, Confucius's ideas have profoundly shaped the entire society of the Middle Kingdom. Every Chinese person, regardless of social class, is more or less influenced by this philosophy.

"To overcome oneself, to restore to one's heart the honesty it received from nature—therein lies perfect virtue... It depends on each person to be perfectly virtuous." Confucius